Greek philosopher and scientist, Aristotle (384-322 BC), likened the movement of sound through air to ripples formed when an object is dropped in a pond, hence the term “sound wave.”
Sound waves begin with the vibration of an object such as footsteps, ocean waves, or a cymbal crash. These vibrations—traveling at 767 mph at sea level—are transmitted to our ears by the medium of air. When these sounds reach us, our eardrums vibrate, resulting in the transmission of electrical signals to the brain. Our brains interpret these electrical impulses, decoding them into sound categories and storing them for future reference.
The Rehearsal | Peter Kun Frary
We're Made for Music
With a cacophony of sound bombarding our ears twenty-four hours a day, how do we make sense of it all? Our brains have the ability to categorize and selectively listen to sound. Indeed, humans possess an extraordinary ability to discern a trumpet solo amidst an orchestra, pinpoint a conversation across a room, or tune a guitar in a noisy environment where electronic tuners fail. In essence, we have the unique capacity to make sense of seemingly random sounds.
We not only comprehend random sounds, but also create and organize sound as a form of communication. This unique ability sets humanity apart from the animal kingdom and makes us capable of music-making. Indeed, after the spoken word, music is man’s most expressive, enduring, and universal form of communication.
What Are Musical Elements?
To understand the process of music, we begin by exploring music's physical and technical components. These components are called Musical Elements and include sound, melody, rhythm, harmony, texture, instruments, voices, and notation. Said concepts form the foundation of our studies during the semester.
Attributes of Musical Sounds
Musical sounds possess attributes like pitch, dynamics, duration, and timbre. In our study of musical elements, we’ll delve into each of these attributes.
Musical Pitch
Pitch refers to the highness or lowness of a musical tone. For example, when singing the Star-Spangled Banner, the lowest pitch is sung on the word “say,” while the highest pitch is on the word “see.”
Frequency
The pitch of musical tones may be represented as repetitions of a wave pattern over time. These wave repetitions are called frequency and are expressed numerically as the number of cycles per second or Hertz (Hz). Consequently, the faster the vibration, the higher the pitch, and the slower the vibration, the lower the pitch.
Sound Waves | The graphic represents sound frequencies: larger waves have lower frequencies than smaller waves. | Wikimedia Commons
For example, the first note depicted below is an A with a frequency of 440Hz, indicating that the wave pattern vibrates 440 times in one second. The second note is higher in pitch, with a frequency of 880Hz, while the third note has a lower pitch, with a frequency of 220Hz.
Although the terms pitch and frequency of vibration (Hz) are synonymous, musicians discuss pitch as letter names whereas frequency of vibration (Hz) is primarily used for scientific and technical specifications such as the pitch range of headphones.
Definite Pitch
Sounds with definite pitch—a precise frequency of vibration or Hertz (Hz)—are called musical tones. Musical tones may be written as notes or expressed as solfège (musical syllables): do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, do. Sing the scale below while vocalizing solfège syllables:
When you sing Happy Birthday, you are creating definite pitch:
Happy Birthday | Definite pitch
Indefinite Pitch
Indefinite pitch exhibits irregular vibration patterns and, thus, can't be expressed as Hertz or as a musical tone such as do, re, mi. When you clap your hands or stomp your feet, you are creating indefinite pitch. Indefinite pitch is within the realm of percussion instruments such as the temple block, congas, and cymbal.
Happy Birthday with indefinite pitch:
Indefinite pitches have three properties: dynamics, duration and timbre. Whereas definite pitches have four properties: pitch, dynamics, duration and timbre.
Interval
The distance between two pitches is called an interval. Intervals are expressed numerically. Sing the do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, do scale. The interval from do to re is a second. From do to mi is a third. From do to fa is a fourth.
The interval from do to do is an octave. The scale pattern of do, re, mi, fa, so, la ti, do starts over at the octave. Sing the first two notes of Somewhere Over the Rainbow. The interval between the first two notes (some- to where) is an octave. The octave is heard again between the seventh and eighth notes:
The octave is used as a unit to express the pitch range of a voice or instrument. For example, a piano has a seven-octave range. In other words, the do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, do scale can be played seven times from the bass to the treble side of the keyboard.
Piano Scale | Seven octaves of the C major scale played on the piano
Expressive control of volume—loudness and softness in music—is called dynamics. Dynamics help shape the emotional expressiveness of music. For example, a volume increase creates excitement. A decrease in volume may suggest relaxation.
Dynamic Accent
When a single tone is emphasized by playing it louder than the surrounding tones, it draws attention to itself. Such an emphasis is called a dynamic accent.
Listen to this softly played passage with dynamic accent:
Dynamic Terms
Italian words are used to label dynamics. Italian musicians were among the first to indicate dynamics and tempo in scores, so their terms became standard. Here are the basic dynamic terms and abbreviations from very soft to very loud:
pianissimo or pp (very soft)
piano or p (soft)
mezzo piano or mp (medium soft)
mezzo forte or mf (medium loud)
forte or f (loud)
fortissimo or ff (very loud)
Gradual Changes
Crescendo, decrescendo, and diminuendo are gradual changes in dynamics. Crescendo is a gradual increase in volume, whereas decrescendo and diminuendo indicate a gradual decrease in volume. These terms may be abbreviated:
crescendo or cresc. (gradually louder)
decrescendo or decresc. (gradually softer)
diminuendo or dim. (gradually softer)
Leeward Coast Guitars | G.F. Handel, Gavotte
The above track, Gavotte by G.F. Handel, begins with a vigorous forte. Dynamics drop down to piano 15 seconds into the track, creating a sudden contrast with the forte. Next, a mezzo forte begins at 28 seconds, followed by an excitement-building crescendo at the 32-second mark. At 39 seconds, dynamics drift back down to mezzo forte, and the piece ends with a short but relaxing diminuendo.
Duration
The length of a musical sound is called duration. Duration is a multifaceted attribute, deserving of more time than possible here. Thus, specific aspects of duration, such as rhythm, meter, and tempo, will be discussed separately in upcoming chapters of Elements.
Heather's Hair | Peter Kun Frary
Timbre
The unique character or quality of sound produced by an instrument or voice is called timbre, i.e., tone color. Humans can distinguish a trumpet from an ʻukulele by their distinctive timbres. Because human ears are sensitive to minute changes in tone color, timbre is an integral part of musical expression.
Vocal and instrumental timbres are largely determined by which overtones, also called partials, are emphasized.
Harmonic Series
What is an overtone? For example, when you hit a kitchen pot lid with a chopstick, you’ll hear several distinct tones: the lowest tone, the fundamental, and softer tones above it called overtones. When overtones are presented in ascending order, they are referred to as the harmonic series.
Overtones | The numbered notes symbolize overtones generated above the fundamental (first note). This grouping of overtones is called the harmonic series.
This audio is provided solely for illustrative purposes. In reality, overtones are perceived as faint tones sound above the fundamental. The harmonic series extends beyond the 7th partial, but we typically cannot hear the upper overtones due to their extreme softness.
Tibetan Singing Bowl
Tibetan singing bowls produce a fundamental tone with easily discernible overtones. When you listen to Tibetan singing bowl audio, you’ll hear a soft, low-pitched fundamental with several higher-pitched overtones above it. Tibetan singing bowls are particularly unique because some partials are louder than the fundamental, making it easier to identify the overtones compared to a guitar, piano, or human voice.
Tibetan Singing Bowl Fundamental and Overtones
Pick Your Timbre
When artists create images, they choose and mix colors from a palette of colors. Timbre plays a similar role for musicians: the choice of an instrument or voice is an important part of the creative process. For example, a flute produces a strikingly different effect than the same melody played on a pizzicato (plucked) violin.
Flute
Pizzicato Violin
There is no specialized terminology to describe timbre. Instead, subjective terms from everyday language are used: dark, nasal, muffled, thin, rich, bright, etc.
The Attributes of Music | Anne Vallayer-Coster, 1770 | Musée du Louvre
Vocabulary
sound wave, musical elements, pitch, definite pitch, indefinite pitch, musical tones, solfège, Hertz, frequency of vibration, interval, octave, pitch range, dynamics, dynamic accent, pianissimo, piano, mezzo piano, mezzo forte, forte, mezzo forte, fortissimo, crescendo, decrescendo, diminuendo, hairpin, timbre, overtone, partials, harmonic series
We're Made for Music
What Are Musical Elements?
Musical Pitch
Frequency
Definite Pitch
Indefinite Pitch
Interval
Dynamics
Duration
Timbre
