3 | Musical Elements

Strings from Paleolithic Times to Now

Peter Kun Frary

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Any object that produces sound may be considered a musical instrument: leg bones, seashells, rocks, etc. Musical instruments have existed since the dawn of our species, but natural materials used for construction such as skin, bone, wood, etc., are not durable. Thus, few musical artifacts have survived the untold millennia. Archaeological evidence of musical instruments can be traced to the middle Paleolithic era (300,000 to 30,000 years ago), albeit music likely existed earlier.

Japanese Women Playing Koto and Biwa (c. 1815) | The koto and biwa are chordophones | Metropolitan Museum of Art

Instrument Classification

The study of musical instruments and their classifications is called organology.

Western musicians group instruments into six categories: strings, woodwinds, brass, percussion, keyboards and electronic. Categories are based on a mishmash of technique, construction materials, sound and tradition. The advantage of this system is the terms and instruments are familiar to most people.

Hornbostel-Sachs System

A system of classifying musical instruments according to methods of sound creation was introduced by Erich Moritz von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie in 1914, and known as the Hornbostel-Sachs system. There are five different methods of sound production:

1. string vibration
2. membrane vibration
3. vibration of the entire instrument's body
4. vibration of air inside the instrument
5. vibration via electronics

These five types of sound production forum the primary classification basis in the Hornbostel-Sachs system. Quasi-scientific terms (Greek) are used to label the sound production categories:

1. chordophone—strings
2. membranophone—vibrating skin
3. idiophone—vibrating body
4. aerophone—vibrating air
5. electrophone—vibration via electronics

Within these categories are hundreds of subcategories. Although a logical system for describing diverse instruments, few people outside of ethnomusicology and organology understand the classification terms.

Egyptian Harp | 9-string harp mural from the tomb of Ramses III, 1150 BCE | The harp is a chordophone and likely developed from the musical bow | New York Public Library Digital Collection

We begin our instrumental studies with chordophones. We can't cover all of them, but will examine culturally and historically significant examples. 

Chordophones

The string family encompasses a huge array of instruments but all have one thing in common: sound is created by a vibrating string set in motion by fingers, bow or pick. Sound waves from the vibrating string are amplified in a body made of rigid materials. These instruments are called chordophones, i.e., string-sounds.

Musical Bow | The African Lolo mouth bow, similar to a hunting bow, uses the player's mouth to amplify string vibrations (1:52).

The string or chordophone family divides into two broad categories: bowed chordophones and plucked chordophones.

Plucked String Instruments

Plucked string instruments create sound by picking, striking or pulling the string and include instruments like the pipa (琵琶), koto (箏), guitar, ʿūd (عود) and harp.

Ancient Chordophone | Lyre

After the musical bow, the most ancient member of the chordophone family is the lyre, a U-shaped harp with strings attached to a crossbar. In the Baltic region of Europe, fragments of lyre-like instruments have been discovered that suggest the existence of the lyre since prehistoric times.

Muse playing the lyre | Greek vase decorated with a muse playing the lyre, c. 440–430 BC. | Staatliche Antikensammlungen

The currents of cross-cultural exchange disseminated the lyre throughout the ancient world, changing form and function as it was adapted to diverse cultures. By 1369 BCE, the lyre had arrived in Egypt, where it was depicted in tombs and associated with the worship of the deity Alum. It attained considerable popularity in Greece by 500 BCE and subsequently spread across medieval Europe. Listen to Roza Fragorapti, an ancient Greek music scholar and lyre performer:

Lyre | Roza Fragorapti playing and singing with a 7-string Greek lyre (1:34)

During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries—hundreds of years after fading from popular use in the West—the lyre lived on as a favorite prop for well-to-do European portraits, a cross-cultural remnant from the ancient world.

Portrait of Sarah Harrop with Lyre | Angelica Kauffmanca, c. 1780 | Princeton University Art Museum

Modern Chordophone | 'Ukulele

We fast forward a couple of millennia to examine a contemporary popular plucked chordophone, the ‘ukulele. The ‘ukulele, a diminutive member of the guitar family, holds the distinction of being the most renowned Hawaiian instrument. Originating in the late nineteenth century, it is characterized by a long fretted neck, four courses of strings, and a hollow body designed for resonance. Most models feature a soundhole or slits to facilitate the outward projection of sound.

'Ukulele | The 'ukulele, played by Kalei Gamiao, is a chordophone closely related to the guitar and Portuguese braguinha | ©Peter Kun Frary

Listen to the sound of the tenor ‘ukulele:

Aloha 'Oe | Lili'uokalani's song played on tenor ʻukulele by Peter Frary

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Many plucked string chordophones use similar terminology for their parts. For instance, the ukulele has the same part names as the guitar, mandolin, and bass guitar. 

'Ukulele | A plucked chordophone and small member of the guitar family.

Instrumental Families

String instruments, like brass and wind instruments, exist in multiple sizes, roughly approximating SATB vocal ranges. For example, the guitar family includes the bass guitar, baritone guitar, guitar, alto guitar, and piccolo (soprano) guitar:

Concerto in C Major RV425 | Antonio Vivaldi, 1678-1741 | Zoo Guitar Duo and the Missing Person Guitar Quintet (9:08)

Bowed String Instruments

Musicians create sound on a bowed chordophone by drawing a bow across the strings. In Western music, string instruments played with a bow—a stick strung with horse hair—belong to the violin family and include the violin (soprano), viola (alto) cello (bass) and double bass.

Rebab | Bowed chordophone and ancestor of the violin and erhu | Metropolitan Museum of Art

Cross-Cultural Exchange | Rebab

The rebab, a bowed chordophone, originated in Persia (Iran) during the 7th or 8th century CE. Its widespread dissemination across Asia, Africa, and Europe showcases cross-cultural interaction and exchange. As it traveled through different cultures, it underwent modifications and was renamed to adapt to their unique musical traditions, becoming a direct ancestor to many other bowed instruments. For example, in Mongolia, the rebab grew larger, transforming into the ikili. In Europe, it evolved into the rebec, eventually leading to the viol and violin families. The rebab and its relatives are played upright, similar to a cello, but their compact size allows them to be held on the lap. 

Erhu | 二胡 Although the rebab and rebec have faded from Western use, its relatives are widely popular in Asia and Northern Africa. In China, the rebab developed into an instrument known as the erhu (二胡).

The use of the Chinese erhu in The Great Race is an example of cross-cultural interaction and exchange between American rock and Chinese traditional music.

The Great Race | The Hsu-nami | Modern Chinese erhu (二胡) music (4:40)

Violin | Most violin part names are the same for the cello, viola and double bass. The cello and double bass lack a chin rest but have a spike for floor use.

Violin

The violin is a popular bowed chordophone used extensively in classical, folk, popular and Non-Western genres. Listen to Mr. Visontay talk about the violin:

Zsolt-Tihamér Visontay introduces the violin (8:39)

More Cross-Cultural Interactions

Listen to Tina Guo play the erhu and cello. Both instruments are bowed chordophones, but the erhu originated in China, while the cello developed in Europe. Interestingly, both the erhu and cello both share a common ancestor, the ancient Persian rebab. The compositions The Great Race and Oogway Ascends beautifully illustrate the cross-cultural interaction and exchange of instruments, musicians, and musical style traits between Eastern and Western civilizations.

Oogway Ascends | Kung Fu Panda (4:30)

String Instrument Techniques

Techniques significant to the unique sound of string instruments include: vibrato, harmonics, double stop, tremolo and pizzicato.

Vibrato

Vibrato, a technique that rapidly fluctuates a musical tone slightly sharp and flat, enhances and sweetens the note. It can be created by pressing the string on the fingerboard and shaking or rocking the finger. Observe the left hand vibrato technique in the video below:

Torija | Federico Moreno Torroba, 1891-1982 | Peter Kun Frary (2:14)

Double Stop

Double stop, triple stop, and so on, are techniques that involve playing two, three, and so on, notes simultaneously. While these techniques can be challenging to execute on bowed instruments like the violin or cello, they are relatively straightforward on the guitar or ukulele. The video below demonstrates triple stops starting at 0:16.

Billie Jean | Michael Jackson, 1958-2009 | Barcelona Guitar Trio and Paquito Escudero on percussion (2:11)

Harmonics

On string instruments, high pitched bell-like tones, called harmonics, may be created by lightly touching strings at nodal points. Listen to Cory Fujimoto play harmonics during the beginning (intro) of Somewhere Over The Rainbow:

Somewhere Over The Rainbow | Cory Fujimoto, Kanilea guitalele (4:05)

Tremolo

Tremolo is a rapid repetition of a single note. It’s created by repeating notes with small, rapid down-up bow strokes on violin-family instruments or repeated strokes with a finger or pick on plucked string instruments like the guitar or ukulele. On the guitar, tremolo is particularly prevalent in Spanish and Latin American guitar styles. A prime example of this technique is El Último Tremolo by Paraguayan composer Augustín Barrios.

El Ultimo Tremolo | Augustin Barrios, 1885-1944 | Kyuhee Park, guitar (3:25)

Pizzicato

The technique of plucking the strings of a violin, viola, cello or similar bowed stringed instrument is called pizzicato.

Street Pizzicato | Portland, Oregon | The cello is a bowed chordophone and bass member of the violin family | ©Peter Kun Frary

When bowed instruments such as the violin are plucked, the resulting tones are soft and short in sustain:

CHUSETS - Violin Pizzicato Caprice | Nino Cotone, violin (2:02)

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Vocabulary

organology, chordophone, musical bow, berimbau, mouth bow, lyre, endong, vibrato, tremolo, harmonics, double stop, triple stop, pizzicato, rebab, ikili, rebec, erhu, guitar, violin, cello, viola, double bass, Hornbostel-Sachs system

©Copyright 2018-26 by Peter Kun Frary | All Rights Reserved